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Many executives expect: ‘I set the course, you manage the project, they deliver the work.’ But reality feels more like: ‘I expect results, you promise me a deadline, they’re late again.’ How do different subcultures understand each other?
This is Part 2 | Read Part 1 | Part 3
[ Listen to the audio version, read by David Hodes]
In our second of three parts on culture, I want to dig deeper into the dynamics that inform what we see and feel on the surface. As we discovered in the first article, every organisation has a unique culture, generated from how its people adapt to external drivers and build internal coherence. But given that every culture is unique, can we discern certain archetypes within cultures that provide insights to help build our adaptability to changing markets and bind us internally into a more coherent shared vision?
Ed Schein, on whom I draw heavily in this article, notes three major archetypes—the executive, the engineer, and the operator. The executive subculture focuses primarily on financial survival and growth—the equivalent of being in a perpetual war with competitors.
Executives
Strategy guru Michael Porter claimed organisations could only compete on two dimensions—cost and differentiation. As the executive, you get to choose which dimension, and then you’re in a constant war with competitors. It’s hard to trust anyone when you’re leading a ‘war’, so the higher you go in the executive ranks, the more you become the lone hero. You appear in total control, but you cannot get reliable data from below because your subordinates tell you what they think you want to hear. Thus, you increasingly find yourself backing your own judgment, which becomes more and more authoritarian if left unchecked. People increasingly become a necessary evil and not a source of intrinsic value. They appear as ‘resources’ acquired and managed as component widgets to serve the well-oiled machine. They are increasingly no longer whole people who are ends in themselves, but heartless heads and hands to do the boss’s bidding.
Engineers
The engineering subculture refers to those who are required to translate the intention of their executive bosses into projects. The mental model is of a world of elegant machines and processes, working in perfect precision and harmony with minimal human intervention. People are the problem for those who occupy these positions and should be designed out of the system wherever possible. Or, to quote the famous behaviouralist, BF Skinner, ‘The real question is not whether machines think but whether men do’. Nature can and should be mastered with solutions based on science and available technology for the engineering subculture. Their work is to solve puzzles and overcome problems. They do work to create valuable products and services.
Operators
At the bottom of the hierarchy come the operators. This subculture knows that the output of any enterprise results from the action of people. Success, therefore, depends on the operator’s knowledge, skill, learning ability, and commitment. It’s the operators who know how to use the organisation’s core technologies based on their specific experience. They are not as enamoured as the engineers of the elegant machines they dream up. No process is so tightly engineered that human intervention becomes unnecessary, and it is the operators who can learn, innovate and deal with matters as they inevitably go sideways.
Operators are the linkage between the separate parts of the process. It is up to them to find ways to collaborate in teams, communicate effectively, and develop trust with their mates. Management’s role is to ensure they give them the proper resources, training and support necessary to get the job done.
While these three subculture archetypes may vary in their particulars in any given organisation, I suspect you’ll find enough truth in them to admit they exist within yours. Every subculture, however, can still be defined by the rubric of external adaptation and internal integration. So, let’s take a deeper dive into some of the dimensions of culture which would ordinarily pass by our conscious selves and be the invisible fabric of ‘how we do things around here’.
On truth, time and space
Let’s kick off with the question of how people within a culture might define truth. Sounds simple, but not so much. How much of what we regard as truth is simply dogma, based on tradition? Do we rely on the authority of experts and the wise to reveal the truth? What was it about the pandemic that had us surrender our civil liberties to unelected experts because we believed they had the wisdom of prophets? To what extent are we rational and empirical in determining what is true and what is false? Who sets the experiments, who runs the logic and who decides which direction forward? If it’s a marketing decision, is it only marketing who get to run the experiment? Who goes on the lookout for disconfirming data, if anyone? Do we all get to vote on the decision?
Another dimension of culture which we rarely bring to the front of mind is the nature of time and space. Time is a very different commodity to tradie operators clocking on and off from their work on a construction site than to a consultant preparing a report on the impact of environmental legislation on the business case for investment.
You see time very differently when you are in a planning phase of an initiative than when you are executing it. Depending on the circumstance, different people within the organisation have longer horizons of discretion to get their work done. How often do people operating under different time signatures become frustrated with each other? One person’s scurrying around ‘busyness’ is another’s need to run the beast as it’s been designed. What appears to be a leisurely and aristocratic indulgence to some is the carefully considered deliberation of the other. Just pause for a moment when you’re next amongst your colleagues and see if you can observe the metronome beating out the rhythm of their work.
“How often do people operating under different time signatures become frustrated with each other?”
So, as with time, what about space? Sociologists have an expression called the ‘ideal sphere’ around each of us, reserved only for those with whom we have an intimate relationship. It’s between 10 and 40 cm. If a stranger is that close to us, it makes us uncomfortable or anxious. Think about how you feel when you are packed into an elevator or onto a full and busy train. We overcome the physical distance by creating an enhanced psychological space. Moving in this close on the space of another at work can be considered intimidating or creepy.
When we engage in conversations, one on one, we usually have a good sense of personal distance. Somewhere between 45cm and 75cm is felt as being at the proper distance, whereas anything more is considered far. This distance permits a normal or soft tone of voice and is usually accompanied by intense eye contact. Interestingly, these distances are bound in national and ethnic cultures. One can unwittingly feel that a person closing in on the 45cm is ‘in your face’ because of your cultural norms, but they are not violating their own.
When we talk to several people at once, say at a dinner party or a seminar, it usually involves some raising of the voice and less personal focus on any given individual. Our eyes will scan the group, or we will focus on the floor or ceiling. Do your office spaces and meeting rooms feel appropriate for the kinds of meetings you want? If we’re going to meet informally and really get to know each other, the more the room has to be scaled down to allow that to happen. For people seated around a table, its size and shape must be appropriate to feel socially at ease in each other’s presence.
“Do your office spaces and meeting rooms feel appropriate for the kinds of meetings you want?”
A significant contributor to organisational culture is what people think about who they are in the corporate setting and what their role is. A person arriving from a small engineering consultancy into a large mining house could feel like a fish out of water, or alternately as a breath of fresh air. What does the culture allow this person to be? It’s what Schein calls cognitive clarity.
That same person might wonder how their own need for influence and control will be met. How does the organisation manage aggression and disagreeableness? Donald Trump famously set his Atlantic City casinos into fierce competition with each other. The culture in a Buddhist seminary could hardly be more removed from that extreme example.
‘How will the group’s goals allow me to meet my needs and goals?’ is a question we all ask of our workplace, consciously or not. Of course, everyone turns up to work with an intention to get something done. But, in Steve Jobs’s world, there was the well-documented use of his ‘reality distortion field’ superpower. What example does that set for Apple employees regarding what is permissible in the management of intention and will? And what of those organisations who perpetuate the idea that ‘it’s above your pay grade…’.
‘Am I accepted, and can I let down my guard?’ is another question we ask, even if not explicitly voiced. Some organisations are very formal, and a relational distance is maintained to attempt to avoid the messy nature of human affections. What does it mean, though, in an organisational setting to be managing love, that most basic of human emotions? Is your culture a cauteriser of love, or is it expressive and vulnerable? How is intimacy managed?
The more we dig into an organisation’s culture, the more complex it becomes. It is not static but revolves around its historical anchors, reaching back to its founders’ thoughts, behaviours, and actions. In the third and final article on culture, we’ll look into how leaders within an organisation can equip themselves to amplify those aspects of the culture they’d like to see more of and dial down what is harmful.
This is Part 2 of our series on Culture.
Part 1: Cultivating culture
Part 2: Culture – Digging below the surface
Part 3: The Anxieties of Changing Culture
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What’s next?
The change to using Theory of Constraints (TOC) as an underlying operating system is both profound and exhilarating. We’ve developed the Systems Thinker Course to bring the ideas into your organisation.
- View the Systems Thinker Course Guide (no email required to download)
- Join us for the Systems Thinker Foundations Workshop (we run this FREE workshop once each month)
- To find out more about these, or any of our services, simply schedule a call
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[Background image: A metronome, Rachel Loughman on Unsplash]
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Understanding the Jobs Patients Need Doing
A patient may ask for a smaller device, a clearer display or an easier app. Those requests matter, but they leave a deeper question unanswered: what is the person trying to accomplish, and why does the current approach make it difficult?
Someone using a monitoring device may want to understand whether their condition is changing, decide when to seek help or manage daily activities with greater confidence. The device is one means of achieving that outcome.
A powerful question asks how well your organization understands the jobs patients are trying to get done. A strong answer connects patient research with clearly defined outcome statements that become the formal user needs your teams use to build the design history file. Outcome-based user needs are easier to validate, flow more easily into design requirements, and result in faster time to market.
“A feature request describes a possible answer. Understanding the patient’s job to be done sets your design team up to deliver a better solution faster.”
Define the job from the patient perspective
A useful job statement describes an activity the patient needs to accomplish in a relevant context. It should remain understandable without naming your product or preferred technology.
“Use our app every day” describes behavior your organization wants. “Provide a way to recognize when a change in my condition requires professional advice” describes the outcome a patient actually desires.
The distinction affects research. If the team starts with the app, it will ask how to improve screens and interactions. Starting with the job opens questions about information, confidence, timing and support. The best solution may involve changes beyond the app.
Define a scope the team can investigate. “Live a healthier life” expresses an aspiration but is too broad to guide detailed engineering decisions on its own. “Minimize the time it takes to find a solution to my health concern without needing to talk to a doctor or call someone” gives a team a direction, a measure, an object of control and contextual clarifier(s).
Distinguish the job from the journey
Journey mapping shows how people move through a particular care pathway. Job mapping examines what they must accomplish to achieve their purpose, including the work surrounding the interaction with your solution.
The two perspectives complement each other. A journey may show that a patient waits for follow-up. The job perspective asks what they are trying to understand or decide while waiting.
This matters because current processes can become embedded in the team’s assumptions. Patients may need a reliable way to recognize an important change; they do not necessarily need the exact sequence of activities currently provided.
Use the journey to understand context and dependencies. Use the job to examine whether a different approach could help the patient achieve the desired outcome more effectively.
Study daily life where it happens
Patient research begins with observation and empathy interviews at the Gemba, the place where the activity actually occurs.
For patients, that place includes the home and the settings in which they manage health alongside ordinary responsibilities. Ask people to demonstrate routines, explain decisions and describe recent experiences.
Observe what they do. Immerse yourself in the circumstances surrounding the activity. Engage through questions that let them explain their purpose in their own language.
A person may say that managing treatment is straightforward while observation reveals multiple reminders, improvised storage or reliance on a partner. Those arrangements can reveal effort and uncertainty that have become familiar enough to go unreported.
The aim is to understand the why your solution will win before making any decisions about what your solution will do. Customers will want your solution because of the outcomes it gives them, not because of what you made.
Recruit for differences that affect the job
Patients with the same diagnosis may struggle with different parts of an activity. Differences in confidence, experience, resources and support can change how they define success.
Recruit participants whose circumstances reflect the population you intend to serve. Include relevant variations in health literacy, technology familiarity, physical ability and access to care. Are you targeting the tech savvy millennial, a busy parent trying to run a family with four kids or a retiree living in a managed healthcare facility?
Research should also examine emotional and social needs. A patient may want reassurance about managing a task alone or worry about drawing attention to a condition. Keep these needs visible alongside functional outcomes without assuming one design choice resolves them all.
Examine the complete job
The job mapping framework divides a job into eight recurring steps. These steps prompt investigation beyond the most visible interaction.
- Define. Establish what the patient needs to achieve and the circumstances that matter.
- Locate. Establish how the patient will find the information, materials or support required, including your solution.
- Prepare. Uncover how the patient will arrange the environment and resources for the job to be done.
- Confirm. Understand how the patient will make the decision to go forward with your solution and determine whether everything is ready for the intended next action steps.
- Execute. What outcomes matter to the patient as they get your solution and start using it. Often this is the ONLY job step the team looks at.
- Monitor. How will the patient assess and know for sure your solution is progressing successfully.
- Modify. Rarely do things work perfectly on the first try. Identify outcomes that are important to the patient when adjustments to the approach are needed when conditions or results require it.
- Conclude. Complete the set of outcomes by understanding how the patient completes the activity or prepares to repeat it.
Apply these prompts to actual patient work. Some steps may recur or overlap. The map should help the team discover needs, rather than force experience into an artificial sequence.
“The most useful innovation may help a patient prepare, recognize an exception or recover confidence before it changes the device itself.”
Turn patient language into outcome statements
Interviews generate verbatims: patients’ own descriptions of experiences, difficulties and expectations. Preserve that evidence, then interpret what each statement reveals about the job.
An illustrative verbatim might be, “I keep checking because I don’t know whether the reading matters.” The desired outcome may concern recognizing a meaningful change or understanding what action is appropriate.
A structured outcome statement identifies the direction of improvement, a measure, the object being controlled and relevant context. For example: “Minimize the time required to determine whether a change in a reading requires contacting my care team.”
Ask the team if there are uncovered outcomes that can set your solution apart related to how it is purchased, installed, received, set up, learned with training support, transported, maintained, upgraded, replaced or disposed.
This formulation gives research and design a clearer target. It does not establish a clinical threshold or promise that a device can safely make the decision independently, but often the features that will make your solution “easy to use” or set you apart will come from these outcome statements.
Preserve meaning as you organize the evidence
Several comments may describe the same need. One comment may contain multiple needs. Review the evidence carefully before combining it into a set of outcomes.
Remove duplication, separate distinct outcomes and retain links to the original accounts. Use plain language that patients can understand. Avoid embedding a particular feature in the statement.
Check the interpretation with participants or other appropriate reviewers. “I want fewer notifications” might mean reducing irrelevant interruptions while preserving important information. Treating it as a demand to suppress all alerts would misrepresent the need.
The output should be a coherent set of outcomes organized by job step. Completeness and clarity matter but typically it is ideal to have at least 100 and no more than 200 outcome statements for the team.
Measure importance and satisfaction separately
Qualitative research discovers needs and explains them. Quantitative research helps determine how widely they matter and how well existing approaches satisfy them.
Ask patients to rate the importance of each outcome and their satisfaction with their current ability to achieve it. Make the reference situation clear so respondents evaluate comparable experiences.
A high scoring importance outcome with low satisfaction deserves investigation. High satisfaction may indicate that the need is already well served so the team can use what already exists and put more time in creating innovative solutions to high importance low satisfaction outcomes. Low importance can reduce its priority, although clinical safety requirements cannot be dismissed through a popularity score.
Use a research design appropriate to the intended population. The outcome statements are easy to rate on a five point Likert scale. Choose population quantitative research in alignment with your target persona groups.
Identify opportunities within patient segments
The Outcome Driven Innovation approach uses importance and satisfaction to identify underserved outcomes. Its opportunity calculation adds importance to the positive gap between importance and satisfaction.
Use compatible scales and a clearly defined calculation. Interpret the result alongside the underlying responses, research quality and the clinical context.
Examine differences between groups. An outcome that appears adequately served overall may remain difficult for patients with less support or a different level of experience.
These differences can reveal meaningful segments based on unmet needs. They help the organization avoid treating demographic similarity as evidence that patients need the same solution. Prioritization should retain enough detail to explain whose outcome the proposed improvement will change.
Connect outcomes with development decisions
A target product profile brings the priority outcomes together with business goals, available technology and other relevant requirements. It helps the team agree what success should look like before committing to a concept.
Translate patient outcomes into design inputs and measurable requirements while preserving traceability to the evidence. Define which questions remain uncertain and what research or testing will resolve them.
Evaluate concepts against the outcomes they are intended to improve. Ask whether the proposed approach reduces effort, uncertainty or difficulty for the relevant patients and results in higher satisfaction scores than the baseline solution. A favorable reaction to an attractive prototype provides limited evidence unless the team can connect it with better execution of the job.
Keep patient progress connected to system performance
A priority patient need may involve work performed by a clinician, caregiver or service provider. Investigate those dependencies before deciding that a product change will solve the problem.
The Theory of Constraints helps identify where improvement can change the performance of the wider pathway. A better patient interaction can have limited effect if access to essential support remains constrained.
A Value Management Office can coordinate the initiatives needed to address these connected issues and keep investment aligned with patient outcomes.
“Patient insight becomes useful design evidence when the team can show which outcome matters, who struggles with it and how the solution improves it.”
What comes next
Use patient jobs to be done to review one priority patient job. Can your team state it clearly, map its steps and demonstrate which outcomes are highly important and poorly satisfied?
Start with observation and patient conversations. Build and validate the outcome statements, measure priorities and test concepts against them. That discipline gives Patient Centered Design a practical foundation for better products and more lives changed for good.
The healthcare professional: a hidden constraint in patient flow
A healthcare professional can recognize the value of a medical device and still struggle to incorporate it into care. The referral may be incomplete. Diagnostic evidence may arrive late. Preparation may require extra staff. Follow-up may introduce work that nobody has agreed to own. Managing the patients before and after may require additional staff which adds risk to the business side of the practice.
Those difficulties affect the clinician’s ability to help patients reach and benefit from your solution. They deserve attention during development and throughout deployment.
The purpose is to understand how professionals encounter, assess, recommend and use a solution, and what constraints they encounter in using your solution.
A useful map connects the professional’s experience with patient flow. It helps the organization identify where support, coordination or design changes can improve the delivery of care.
“Clinical enthusiasm cannot create the time, information or supporting capacity needed to deliver a therapy.”
Identify the professionals who shape the pathway
Healthcare professionals perform different jobs at different stages. A referring practitioner, diagnostic specialist, interventional physician, nurse and educator may all influence whether the same patient receives successful care.
Define which groups participate in your pathway and what each contributes. Who recognizes the need? Who establishes eligibility? Who performs the procedure? Who trains the patient? Who monitors outcomes and manages exceptions? Who manages insurance?
Include people whose work makes these actions possible. Coordinators, technicians and administrative staff may arrange appointments, prepare equipment or assemble records. Their contribution can govern whether clinical time is used effectively.
The map should make dependencies visible across roles. It should also clarify which actions fall within your organization’s influence and which require collaboration with care providers or other affected parties.
Distinguish roles from personas
A professional title tells you part of the story. Experience, setting, case volume, access to support, business acumen and familiarity with the therapy can change the work considerably.
An experienced specialist in a well-supported center may encounter different difficulties from a clinician who sees the condition infrequently or works in a rural area. A nurse coordinating a dedicated service may have options unavailable to someone balancing that responsibility with other duties.
Develop personas around these differences. Examine confidence in interpreting evidence, decision authority, available time, training needs and exposure to clinical or organizational risk.
Use research to test the distinctions. Personas should explain variations in behavior and requirements. They should help the team understand why an approach that works in one setting may fail to support another.
Map the journey from first awareness to continuing care
The professional’s journey may begin with awareness of an unmet clinical need or information about a potential solution. It continues through evaluating evidence, discussing alternatives and deciding whether the therapy belongs in their practice.
Adoption can involve local approvals, purchasing, training, changes to referral patterns and coordination with other teams. Clinical use then includes preparation, treatment, documentation, handover and follow-up.
Map these activities without assuming a single linear sequence. Professionals may return to evidence review after a difficult case or revise their approach when colleagues raise concerns.
Distinguish the journey of adopting the therapy from the recurring journey of delivering it to each patient. Both matter, but the barriers and improvement measures can differ.
Capture decisions and dependencies
At each stage, ask what the professional is trying to accomplish and what must be available before the work can proceed.
A decision may depend on diagnostic results, a complete patient history, clear eligibility criteria or advice from another specialty. A procedure may depend on staff, equipment and an appropriate location. Follow-up may depend on information that must be captured earlier.
Show the handovers between roles, including who supplies information and who receives it. Record where uncertainty is resolved and where work is repeated.
This reveals how a product can add burden beyond its immediate interaction. A useful output may still consume scarce clinical time if the professional must retrieve, interpret, reformat and document it through separate systems.
Measure the work and the waiting
The time required for a clinical activity can differ greatly from the time a patient waits to receive it. Both belong on the map.
Measure preparation, clinical work, documentation and recovery from problems where relevant. Record queues, appointment delays and time lost waiting for missing information.
Distinguish professional effort from elapsed time. Some delays consume little active attention but prevent patients progressing. Others require repeated chasing, rescheduling or explanation, drawing capacity away from care.
Define a common unit of work so comparisons remain meaningful. Cases with different complexity may require different analysis. Averages alone can hide the patients or professionals who face the greatest difficulty.
The purpose is to understand usable capacity and patient progress in the actual working environment.
Find the capacity that governs patient flow
A pathway may depend on a small amount of specialist attention surrounded by many competing demands. Headcount alone will not show how much of that attention is available.
Examine what professionals spend their time on, including avoidable administration, repeated assessments and interruptions. Determine whether the relevant constraint is clinical expertise, supporting staff, diagnostic access, equipment or a policy governing work.
The Theory of Constraints helps focus improvement on the factor limiting the whole pathway. Increasing referrals to a service already unable to process them can lengthen waiting without increasing treatment.
Investigate the apparent bottleneck before choosing a response. Better preparation or coordination may release capacity. In other cases, additional resources or changes to the operating model will be necessary.
“The measure of a design improvement is its effect on clinical work and patient progress, including the work it creates elsewhere.”
Observe clinical work at the Gemba
The Gemba is where the work actually happens. Direct observation helps teams understand how professionals use information, equipment and judgment under real conditions.
Observe preparation, interruptions, handovers and the work following the visible procedure. Ask what the professional expected to receive and what they had to obtain independently. Capture workarounds and job “cheat sheets” that are homemade to make working with your solution easier.
Workarounds deserve particular attention. A clinician may keep a private checklist because the formal process omits an important step. A coordinator may repeatedly contact another service because information arrives inconsistently.
These practices reveal requirements that interviews alone may miss. Discuss observations with the people involved so the team does not mistake an isolated event for a routine pattern. Include different settings and experience levels in the research.
Build the baseline from several sources
Gather organizational knowledge and assess technology and business perspectives before moving toward a solution. Apply that discipline to the professional journey.
Use existing clinical insight, training questions, support records and prior implementation experience to draft the map. Identify assumptions and gaps.
Assess the technologies already supporting the work. Consider compatibility with the environment, availability, maintenance, reliability and the practical resources needed for use.
Clarify the business conditions surrounding adoption. Purchasing arrangements, competing initiatives, staffing decisions and local policies may determine whether a clinically attractive solution can be implemented.
This baseline makes research more focused. It also prevents the development team from proposing changes that depend on unavailable capability or unacknowledged commitments from others.
Involve the people who can enable change
Voice of Business research asks leaders about desired outcomes, frustrations, risks and obstacles. It also identifies decision makers and influencers who should participate early.
For a healthcare professional pathway, this means understanding who can authorize changes to responsibilities, processes, resources and technology.
Ask which other initiatives could affect implementation. Identify the independent reviewers who can challenge the team’s assumptions. Agree what success will look like from the perspective of clinical work and patient outcomes.
Make the findings visible to the team members and relevant leaders. A professional may welcome a new approach while lacking the authority to secure the resources it requires. The project needs a realistic route from individual support to organizational adoption.
Use FOCUS to improve the journey
Apply the five-step FOCUS process to the evidence gathered through mapping.
Find the constraint. Identify the activity or resource currently governing the flow of suitable patients through care.
Optimize for it. Protect scarce capacity from incomplete information, unnecessary preparation, avoidable interruptions and repeat work.
Collaborate around it. Coordinate upstream and downstream roles so patients, information and resources arrive when needed.
Uplift it. Add capability or change responsibilities, processes and technology when existing capacity cannot meet the need.
Start Again. Review the pathway after improvement and identify its new limiting factor.
Automation can help when the task is understood and the proposed change supports clinical work. Evaluate its consequences, including review effort, exception handling and any burden transferred to another professional.
Turn the map into a shared improvement plan
The map should lead to a manageable set of changes with clear owners and measures. Test those changes in relevant settings and examine their effect on both professional effort and patient progress.
A Value Management Office can connect the initiatives with priorities, resources and project decisions. Clinical teams and other participants must remain involved in judging whether the changes improve work in practice.
“An effective professional journey supports a clinician through the complete job, from readiness to follow-up.”
What comes next
Use the healthcare professional journey to examine one priority pathway. Can your team explain who performs the work, where capacity is lost and what currently limits patient progress?
Build the map with the professionals involved. Establish the baseline, test an improvement at the constraint and review the result. Patient Centered Design advances when the solution and the surrounding system make beneficial care easier to deliver reliably.
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